Most DNA sequencing today is carried out by chain termination methods of DNA sequencing. The most popular chain termination methods of DNA sequencing are variants of the dideoxynucleotide mediated chain termination method of Sanger. See, Sanger et al. (1977) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA 74:5463–5467. For a simple introduction to dideoxy sequencing, see, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., Current Protocols, a joint venture between Greene Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (e.g., Supplement 38, current through 1998) (Ausubel), Chapter 7. Thousands of laboratories employ dideoxynucleotide chain termination techniques. Commercial kits containing the reagents most typically used for these methods of DNA sequencing are available and widely used. In addition to the Sanger methods of chain termination, new PCR exonuclease digestion methods have also been developed for DNA sequencing. Direct sequencing of PCR generated amplicons by selectively incorporating boronated nuclease resistant nucleotides into the amplicons during PCR and digestion of the amplicons with a nuclease to produce sized template fragments has been performed (Porter et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Research 25(8):1611–1617). The above methods typically require that the terminated fragments be sequenced upon completion of the reaction. This is a time consuming step that limits the ability to sequence in a high throughput manner.
The development of microfluidic technologies by the inventors and their co-workers has provided a fundamental shift in how artificial biological and chemical processes are performed. In particular, the inventors and their co-workers have provided microfluidic systems that dramatically increase throughput for biological and chemical methods, as well as greatly reducing reagent costs for the methods. In these microfluidic systems, small volumes of fluid are moved through microchannels by electrokinetic or pressure-based mechanisms. Fluids can be mixed, and the results of the mixing experiments determined by monitoring a detectable signal from products of the mixing experiments.
Complete integrated systems with fluid handling, signal detection, sample storage and sample accessing are available. For example, Parce et al. “High Throughput Screening Assay Systems in Microscale Fluidic Devices” WO 98/00231 and Knapp et al. “Closed Loop Biochemical Analyzers” (WO 98/45481; PCT/US98/06723) provide pioneering technology for the integration of microfluidics and sample selection and manipulation. For example, in WO 98/45481, microfluidic apparatus, methods and integrated systems are provided for performing a large number of iterative, successive, or parallel fluid manipulations. For example, integrated sequencing systems, apparatus and methods are provided for sequencing nucleic acids. This ability to iteratively sequence a large nucleic acid (or a large number of nucleic acids) provides for increased rates of sequencing, as well as lower sequencing reagent costs. Applications to compound screening, enzyme kinetic determination, nucleic acid hybridization kinetics and many other processes are also described by Knapp et al.
New or improved methods of sequencing are accordingly desirable, particularly those that take advantage of high-throughput, low cost microfluidic systems. The present invention provides these and other features by providing new sequencing methods and high throughput microscale systems for providing sequencing reactions as well as many other features that will be apparent upon complete review of the following disclosure.